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The active psychotropic ingredient in marijuana, THC, can alter senses, change mood, and impair memory and thinking. High doses of marijuana can cause hallucinations, delusions, and psychosis. Approximately 140 million Americans report alcohol use within the past month. About 67 million are binge drinkers, defined by 5+ drinks or 4+ drinks on the same occasion on at least 1 day in the past 30 days.

The results were inconclusive, but a higher risk was observed in cannabis user than in individuals who had never smoked tobacco. Keeping these limitations in mind, our findings reveal some important insights on substance use during the pandemic. For alcohol, a larger proportion of survey participants reported decreased use than increased use. This average decrease was particularly pronounced in relation to the frequency of HED events, where a decrease was reported twice as often as an increase. This European finding is consistent with findings from some (e.g., ), albeit not all (e.g., ), previous surveys of alcohol consumption during the pandemic.

Data Source

The Gardaí began roadside testing for cannabis and other substances in 2016. In 2018 cannabis was implicated in 1,205 cases of road traffic offences according Oursons au CBD végan to the Medical Bureau of Road Safety. A recent study suggests that chronic cannabis use can impair users’ driving even after a 12-hour abstinence period¹⁵.

For example, wealthy countries such as the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia reported very low rates of opioid use. Kazakhstan also reported low rates of opioid consumption, despite having high cancer prevalence and high cancer death rates. Results also indicated that Hispanic young adults who lived near Which CBD Gummies should I choose? more MCDs reported weaker intentions to use e-cigarettes, but not necessarily cannabis or cannabis mixed with tobacco/nicotine. The inverse association of MCD density with intentions to use e-cigarettes was not expected, and it is unclear why this might have emerged among Hispanic young adults only.

Cannabis, also known as marijuana, is the most extensively grown, traded, and abused illicit substance in the United States and worldwide . In the last decade, cannabis misuse has increased at a higher rate than cocaine and opiate abuse. About 147 million people, or 2.5% of the world’s population , consume it compared to 0.2% who use cocaine and 0.2% who use opiates . In the United States, 48.2 million people (about 18%) were consuming marijuana at least once in 2019 .

• Prior to legalization, many such firms were having trouble finding workers who could pass drug tests; the challenge only grows when pot becomes legal.
• China must now focus on adjusting tactics and strategies as new evidence becomes available.3,6 Much remains to be done and many questions remain unanswered.
• However, in many cases, people who experienced these events after smoking marijuana had other risk factors for heart-related events such as smoking cigarettes or being overweight.
• Studies were screened by title and abstract by one author and reviewed for consistency by a second .
• By providing education and advocacy, pediatricians have a unique opportunity and influential power to take the lead in creating innovative approaches and venues for care, thereby improving futures and making significant public health gains for their communities.
• First and foremost, cooking with cannabis doesn’t always mean you have to get stoned.

That 2.9% increase represents – you guessed it – an additional 10 million Americans who used cannabis at least once in the past year. This subsequently brought the population who admitted using from 21.9 million in 2002 to 31.9 million in 2014. The Lancet Psychiatry has published a study that has indicated a shifting attitude toward cannabis use over the last decade. In the report, however, I do not find a demonstration concerning the hypothesized “zoonotic spillover” as the cause of human infection. In public imagination this assumption turns the viral infection into a much stronger threat than it is. Thankfully, these wars have become more focused on the real drug problems that are primarily synthetic or man made or used in ways never imagined.

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Banning advertisement of alcohol is an effective approach to reducing and preventing problematic alcohol use and alcohol-related harm in adolescents. Before it has any effect on the brain, marijuana smoke enters the body through the lungs. Dr. Donald Tashkin, professor of medicine at the UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine, has studied the pulmonary consequences of marijuana use for 25 years, recruiting a group of 280 heavy habitual pot smokers in the early 1980s, including some who also smoked cigarettes. (Subjects averaged three joints per day for an average of 15 years.) For comparison, he also recruited cigarette smokers who didn’t use marijuana and people who didn’t smoke anything.

• The initiation phase is the most vulnerable phase and shows the most negative impact on the outcome .
• Therapeutic interventions in this age group population can be delivered through some unique platforms such as educational settings and mobile and online interventions.
• Uruguay has legalized its use as have 4 American states; Jamaica is in the process of following suit.
• Marijuana is now the second largest cash crop in Kentucky and one of the largest in Hawaii.
• Verywell Mind’s content is for informational and educational purposes only.

Mimiaga M.J., Pantalone D.W., Biello K.B., Hughto J.M.W., Frank J., O’Cleirigh C. An initial randomized controlled trial of behavioral activation for treatment of concurrent crystal methamphetamine dependence and sexual risk for HIV acquisition among men who have sex with men. LoSavio S.T., Dillon K.H., Resick P.A. Cognitive factors in the development, maintenance, and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Bernardi J., Jobson L. Investigating the moderating role of culture on the relationship between appraisals and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. One set of transdiagnostic factors relevant to COVID-19 may be those that are “reactive” vulnerabilities; that is, individual differences that reflect a heightened emotional response to stressful stimuli. In both instances, such reactive processes may be maladaptive because they serve to reinforce the intensity and frequency of future emotional symptoms. It would also be remiss to not call explicit attention to the fact that societies marked by greater economic and social inequality experience far more medical, psychological, and social pathology than do societies where such wealth inequalities are less pronounced (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2006, 2007).

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Impact of changes in regular use of marijuana and/or tobacco on chronic bronchitis. Plasma delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol concentrations and clinical effects after oral and intravenous administration and smoking. Implications of marijuana decriminalization on the practice of pulmonary critical care, and sleep medicine.

Legalization could help to free up some of these resources which could then be used on more important programs throughout the state. Already, “lawmakers in at least three states are considering joining the 13 states that have legalized pot for medical purposes. Massachusetts voters last fall decided to decriminalize possession of how long does it take for cbd oil to kick in an ounce or less of pot; there are now a dozen states that have taken such steps.” Philip Morris, R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, and groups representing growers, distributors and marketers of tobacco took legal action, claiming that the EPA had manipulated this study and ignored accepted scientific and statistical practices.

Hash oil can be the most potent of the main cannabis products because of its high level of psychoactive compound per its volume, which can vary depending on the plant’s mix of essential oils and psychoactive compounds. Butane and supercritical carbon dioxide hash oil have become popular in recent years. Hashish is a concentrated resin cake or ball produced from pressed kief, the detached trichomes and fine material that falls off cannabis fruits, flowers and leaves.

The cannabis plant produces compounds known as cannabinoids in glandular trichomes, mostly around the flowering tops of the plant. Recreational cannabis is derived from these and has been traditionally available as herb or resin . The cannabis plant produces more than 70 cannabinoids, but the one responsible for the “high” that users enjoy is tetrahydrocannabinol . This activates the CB1 receptor, part of the endocannabinoid system, which, in turn, affects the dopaminergic reward system that is altered by all drugs of abuse. Outcomes three times over a 5-year period as they age from 17 years to 22 years.

This type of work can close the gap in access to care and offer evidence-based interventions to large segment of society. For example, digital interventions can be used to combat resistance to public health measures at the level of individuals and institutions with a consideration of individual difference factors that affect emotional and behavioral self-regulation. Indeed, the public’s response to public health measures is itself a potential risk and protective factor for many of the psychological, addictive, and health behavior problems reviewed in this essay. Many constellations of interweaving risk and protective factors, learning histories, and life circumstances can affect how trauma histories and potentially traumatic experiences during the COVID-19 crisis can affect individual journeys of recovery. Similarly, avoidance of thoughts or emotions related to the COVID-19 crisis may increase the risk of developing PTSD symptoms and/or exacerbating or maintaining pre-existing trauma-related symptoms (e.g., Orcutt, Reffi, & Ellis, 2020, pp. 409–436). Learning who suffers long-term negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, why, and under what circumstances will help us to understand how to intervene most effectively to psychologically support trauma survivors in the aftermath of this and future societal crises.

Marijuana has also been hypothesized to help with nausea induced by chemotherapy and antiretroviral therapy, and with severe loss of appetite as seen in people with the AIDS wasting syndrome. All drugs have risks, they point out — including ones in most Americans’ medicine cabinets, such as aspirin and other pain-relievers or antihistamines such as Benadryl. Doctors try to balance those risks against the potential for medical good — why not for marijuana as well, they ask. As legalization of recreational marijuana spreads across the United States, more people are showing up in ERs with psychotic symptoms after consuming too much pot, said Dr. Itai Danovitch, chairman of psychiatry and behavioral neurosciences at Cedars-Sinai in Los Angeles. Not only the overall risk but the age of onset of psychosis shows a direct relationship to marijuana use.

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Smoking your medicine, producing it at home, deciding your own dose, always had far less to do with genuine medical care than with normalizing potheads. The scientists estimated that people who smoked marijuana on a daily basis were three times more likely to be diagnosed with psychosis compared with people who never used the drug. For those who used high-potency marijuana daily, the risk jumped to nearly five times. It was paid for how many mg of cbd for pain by funders including Britain’s Medical Research Council, the Sao Paulo Research Foundation and the Wellcome Trust. The study highlights the limited evidence and the low quality of the evidence that exists around using cannabinoids for treatment of mental health conditions. There is a need for high-quality research to understand the effects of different cannabinoids on a range of outcomes for people with mental health disorders.

• Macleod et al.,32 in a cross-sectional study of 500 cases, found that smokers of marijuana and tobacco showed lower lung function values than smokers of tobacco alone, and that the prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease increased by 0.3% for each marijuana cigarette-year unit.
• It is worth noting that the conclusions across all of the reviews were largely consistent in suggesting that cannabinoids demonstrate a modest effect on pain.
• These costs come in the form of lost work productivity, health care, and crime.

But if nothing else, the limitations of The Lancet study point to the need for more research on cannabis and its effects on long-term physical and mental health — not to mention the removal of the legal barriers that prevent such research from being conducted. The authors found that pharmaceutical THC improved anxiety symptoms among individuals with other medical conditions , though this may have been due to improvements in the primary medical condition. The authors suggest further research should explicitly study the effects of cannabinoids on anxiety and depression. “Our findings showed a sharp increase,” said Deborah Hasin, a professor of epidemiology in psychiatry at Columbia University. Hasin was lead author of theNational Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions, which found the sharp increase in use disorders.

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Meanwhile 8% of 35- to 44-year-olds surveyed in 2014 admitted to using marijuana regularly, surpassing the teens for the first time. A number of pro-legalization groups have welcomed the results published in the Lancet Psychiatry study and, in particular, the assertion that the number of people with a “use disorder” had not increased. Well, among the study’s key findings was that, between 2002 and 2014, the percentage of American adults who admitted to smoking marijuana at least once in the previous 12 months grew from 10.4% to 13.3%.

Each individual is different, and treatment is tailored to a person’s needs. First, individuals need to acknowledge whether they have a problem, which will make controlling their cravings easier. Continued cannabis use despite having persistent or recurrent social or interper­sonal problems caused or exacerbated by the effects of cannabis. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

The group tested 300 patients per urine drug screen from two different clinics but in their analysis had difficulties distinguishing from other co-occurring substance use. Weiss et al showed no adverse outcome in a group of adolescents with cannabis use while in Opioid maintenance treatment. The patients enrolled in this study were mild users and used cannabis only 3 days per month .

• • This improvement occurred whether or not participants had anxiety or depression before quitting smoking.
• The authors of the study assessed more than 900 people in multiple European cities, all of whom had been diagnosed with at least one episode of psychosis.
• Smoking your medicine, producing it at home, deciding your own dose, always had far less to do with genuine medical care than with normalizing potheads.
• Epstein and Preston showed in their study that cannabis use increased the outcomes for jail time and family conflict .
• In the meantime, as cannabis use continues to win acceptance, psychiatrists are likely to see more of the casualties.

Some US states have created de facto legal supply of cannabis for medical use. So far this policy does not appear to have increased cannabis use or cannabis-related harm. Given experience with more liberal alcohol policies, the legalisation of recreational cannabis use is likely to increase use among current users.

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There are no publicly searchable databases of specialty vape shops, and tobacco outlet data do not indicate whether shops sell e-cigarettes or vaping products. Moreover, tobacco outlet data do not include single-owner establishments because of privacy concerns, which undercounts the availability of tobacco shops and, therefore, the availability of e-cigarettes or vaping products. Lastly, the relatively small number of Black young adults in the sample necessitated including them in the other/multi-racial group, which precluded an examination of differences between MCD and RCR density for black young adults. Prior work in this area indicates that positive beliefs about cannabis are positively correlated with outlets’ storefront signage indicating that cannabis is being sold (Shih et al. 2019). We used Google Maps Street View and a variety of websites and social media to review consumer- and store owner-posted pictures to observe signage indicating that the store sold cannabis (Pedersen et al. 2018).

And so we disagree with advocacy of mainstreaming marijuana and making it available as a standard treatment for all kinds of aches and pains. It’s one thing for a doctor to write a prescription for a controlled substance, but begining how often can you take cbd oil with Colorado’s “medical marijuana” law, even that wasn’t required for THC. So-called “patients” of dispensaries ended up deciding for themselves how much pot they’re going to smoke and they even get to grow their own.

Different drugs have distinct patterns of addiction, and the severity varies with dose and length of use. Addiction affects many organs in the body but has a particularly notable impact on the brain. As the addiction to drugs or alcohol progresses over time, changes occur in the brain chemistry and brain circuitry i read we only need 10 mg cbd why make gummies rhat are 600 of the user. In the United States, the use of tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drugs results in estimated costs of over $700 billion annually. These costs come in the form of lost work productivity, health care, and crime. Weed users feeling depressed and anxious may be prescribed an antidepressant medication.

This may represent either a physiological adaption to “smoking” or may be related to cultural or social factors surrounding routes of administration . Anyone familiar with the effects of alcohol would immediately accept that the frequency of drinking is relevant to its adverse effects. Indeed, when a young man in whom schizophrenia has developed after years of smoking cannabis is asked whether he thinks his habit may have contributed to the disorder, he might answer, “No, my friends smoke as much as I do, and they’re fine.” It seems that some people are especially vulnerable.

The entire Tahoe basin was filled with smoke – our eyes reddened and watered, we coughed incessantly, our heads hurt and the alpine magic that once was, no longer existed. To my way of thinking I can’t imagine how anyone would ever intentionally put their lungs and respiratory system into a smoky forest fire environment on a regular basis – yet that is exactly what pot smokers do. The mental, behavioral and psychological effects of marijuana use have received much interest in the scientific community over the past years, however an equally important and nearly as extensive scientific literature exists regarding marijuana’s effects upon other body organs, systems and tissues. ], cannabinoids should not be utilized as a first-line treatment for nausea and vomiting.

Mislabeling may also lead to positive drug test results, especially if the product contains more THC than it claims. Topical solutions may produce localized effects, but only those taken by mouth are likely to produce any mental health effects. It is important to note that while there is a wide variety of these products available on the market, the FDA has not approved any over-the-counter CBD product. Many of these products may vary in terms of what they contain, their potency, and their effectiveness.

Degranulation of mast cells contributing to lung damage has also been observed. Prenatal and childhood passive smoke exposure does not appear to increase the risk of inflammatory bowel disease. Due to the lack of recent, high-quality reviews, the committee has identified that a research gap exists concerning the effectiveness of cannabis or cannabinoids in treating cancer in general. Rocha FCM, dos Santos JG Jr., Stefano SC, da Silveira DX. Systematic review of the literature on clinical and experimental trials on the antitumor effects of cannabinoids in gliomas.

As such, it is important that the reader is aware that this report was not designed to reconcile the proposed harms and benefits of cannabis or cannabinoid use across chapters. Individual difference factors also may play roles in offering resilience to COVID-19 related stress. That is, individual differences may contribute to the likelihood of a resilient response to COVID-19 in the short and long term. Thus, delta 10 thc wiki in addition to the many situational and contextual factors, individual difference factors will likely shape the level of resiliency to COVID-19 pandemic. Here, it is likely individual difference factors that de-amplify stress responses will play a central role in offsetting relative risk for psychological, addictive, and health behaviors problems and exacerbation of chronic illness (Pidgeon & Keye, 2014).

• More research is needed, she said, both to establish a causal relationship and to figure out who may be most susceptible to the health risks of marijuana.
• Colvonen P.J., Straus L.D., Acheson D., Gehrman P. A review of the relationship between emotional learning and memory, sleep, and PTSD.
• Lapses are crucial to study because they offer an opportunity to intervene early in the relapse process .Some opponents of the MMT criticize such programs because MMT patients take an opioid medication to “substitute” for their major drug of abuse.
• Cannabis with THC content greater than 9% is generally considered “high-potency” cannabis.
• It contains chemicals called cannabinoids that affect the central nervous system.

Moreover, 25.5% of COVID-19 patients who either needed mechanical ventilation, were admitted to an intensive care unit, or died from complications related to the disease were current smokers relative to 11.8% of those not experiencing these outcomes. Similar disparities in COVID-19 severity across smoking status have been observed in other samples (W. Liu et al., 2020; J. Zhang, Yang, et al., 2020). Thus, these data, albeit preliminary and limited by sample size, indicate that smoking is a risk factor for COVID-19 progression (W. Liu et al., 2020). Yet, in addition to considering direct impacts of the novel COVID-19 virus on our population, it is imperative to understand the secondary potentially traumatic effects of the pandemic on individuals and communities.

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Many states have legalized recreational and/or medical marijuana, but it remains a Schedule I drug, which means you can still be arrested, convicted, and jailed in a federal court. Recreational users seek the “high” they get from the THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) in marijuana. THC is a mind-altering ingredient found in cannabis that gives the user a feeling of euphoria and/or relaxation. Although drug use initiation usually occurs during childhood and adolescence, the drug users seldom seek treatment in the clinics. Thus, community-based programs are more appropriate and beneficial for prevention and treatment of substance abuse in this group of population.

• Furthermore, improved and objective measurement of clinical outcomes should be implemented in clinical trials to determine treatment efficacy.
• Like the Netherlands, the United States currently has a mixed drug policy; marijuana is an illegalSchedule I drug under U.S.
• It is unclear, however, whether the increase in THC content has caused people to consume more THC or if users adjust based on the potency of the cannabis.
• These Christians began diagnosing ailments, prescribing treatment, and even distributing to others.

Data from the US Census Bureau indicate that approximately 60 million of the US population are in the 12–25 years age range . Marijuana is more prevalent among people in this age range than in other ages . One well-known factor for explaining the marijuana use among Wie sollte ich CBD Gummibärchen am besten aufbewahren? people in this age range is the theory of imbalanced cognitive and physical development . The delayed brain development of youth reduces their capability to cognitively process social, emotional and incentive events against risk behaviors, such as marijuana use .

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The negative effects may be particularly profound when economic hardship is severe or chronic (Dearing, McCartney, & Taylor, 2001; Magnuson & Duncan, 2002). Such emotional symptoms and problems are likely to be related to elevations in substance use and other maladaptive behavior (e.g., less supportive interpersonal behavior, less affection) and may exacerbate chronic health conditions. Other work has found that these processes also disrupt social interconnections (Scaramella, Sohr-Preston, Callahan, & Mirabile, 2008). A final point to consider is the effect that the COVID-19 pandemic itself has on smoking.

However, a 2013 study conducted by researchers at the University of Utah School of Medicine refute the possibility of self-administered zinc producing false-negative urine drug tests. Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome is a severe condition seen in some chronic cannabis users where they have repeated bouts of uncontrollable vomiting for 24–48 hours. There are concerns surrounding memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, and the risk of schizophrenia in young people. Addiction experts in psychiatry, chemistry, pharmacology, forensic science, epidemiology, and the police and legal services engaged in delphic analysis regarding 20 popular recreational drugs. Cannabis was ranked 11th in dependence, 17th in physical harm, and 10th in social harm. Cannabis is mostly used recreationally or as a medicinal drug, although it may also be used for spiritual purposes.

• A population survey conducted in France found self-reported increases of alcohol, tobacco, and no overall change in cannabis use .
• Moreover, the different lockdown measures in response to the pandemic, including their duration and the respective impact on alcohol outlets such as bars and restaurants, add to the observed complexity of comparison across countries.
• Of course, we need more human-based research studying the effectiveness of cannabis, but the evidence base is already large and growing constantly, despite the US DEA’s best efforts to discourage cannabis-related research.
• Reid K. Hester, Ph.D., is the Director of Research at CheckUp & Choices, a digital health company that helps reduce alcohol and drug misuse, and a professor of psychology at the University of New Mexico.
• Interventions focusing on general psychosocial development and life skills might be effective in reducing alcohol use but not in particularly reducing alcohol-related harm.

Grant says it’s important to have a choice of treatments because not everyone responds to or can tolerate the available drugs. Antidepressants are used for neuropathic pain but cause dry mouth, constipation and urinary problems, and must be avoided by people with conditions such as glaucoma. Participants who received 12.5 milligrams of THC before the two tasks reported greater negative mood before and throughout the task, and were more likely to rate the psychosocial task as “challenging” and “threatening” beforehand.

Regardless of disinterest from the pro-pot lobby, the medical community should aggressively pursue such developments. For half a century now, marijuana has been overwhelmingly politically correct among the faculty and students on college campuses. Thus as with many controversial research topics, the inherent bias for and against marijuana can easily produce false study results. Reports, “In the first three months of this year, Gray was accused of marijuana possession, fourth-degree burglary, second-degree assault, malicious destruction of property and trespassing.”

On the other hand, every year tens of thousands die from influenza as well as many other preventable or unexpected causes. This raises the key question regarding the degree to which we should be anxious and fearful of COVID-19. Since even basic knowledge about COVID-19 is undeveloped, it will be difficult to clearly discriminate between normal, adaptive fear responses and less adaptive responses.

Research suggests that cannabinoids may have potential as an effective treatment for reducing pressure in the eye (Tomida et al., 2007). Randomized trials of the efficacy of cannabidiol for different forms of epilepsy have been completed,7 but their results have not been published at the time of this report. Cancer is a broad term used to describe a wide range of related diseases that are characterized by an abnormal, unregulated division of cells; it is a biological disorder that often results in tumor growth . Cancer is among the leading causes of mortality in the United States, and by the close of 2016 there will be an estimated 1.7 million new cancer diagnoses . Relevant to the committee’s interest, there is evidence to suggest that cannabinoids may play a role in the cancer regulation processes (Rocha et al., 2014).

• Similarly, naturally occurring mutations and adaptation of viruses ensure that novel pathogens like COVID-19 will emerge and spread.
• There are several well-established parameters that relate to the genesis and maintenance of anxiety that seem highly relevant to the current situation.
• There are concerns surrounding memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, and the risk of schizophrenia in young people.
• The prevalence of secondhand smoke exposure among U.S. nonsmokers declined from 87.5% in 1988 to 25.2% in 2014.

The first part of the paper examines the arguments of the pro-marijuana side, focusing on those who argue that the drug can have medicinal purposes. The next part then examines the potential dangers of legalized marijuana use, both to the individual and to public health in general. In the conclusion, the paper argues that marijuana use is not a “victimless” crime. The potential dangers that marijuana present to individual and public health are best upheld by keeping marijuana illegal. The debate over medicinal marijuana usage and legality is a controversial one.

This may involve those with subclinical symptoms or other risk factors experiencing onset or worsening of symptoms. The behavioral cycle of OCD/anxiety highlights the role of negative reinforcement in which rituals/avoidance are reinforced by distress reduction and creating a cognitive sense of control (i.e., not getting COVID-19 is due to compulsions; Rector, Wilde, & Richter, 2017). In this scenario, a person with or at risk for OCD may engage in rituals/safety behaviors in response to obsessional distress which in turn reduces anxiety and is perceived as reducing the risk. Reduction in distress may motivate further safety behaviors which, for some at risk, could begin to exceed recommended guidelines. While ordinary levels of risk have risen requiring increased hygiene, it remains to be seen what happens when risk levels decline. That is, do cleaning behaviors likewise decline or remain at elevated states thereby impacting diagnosis rates?

Drug addiction has been defined as a chronically relapsing disorder that is characterized by the compulsive desire to seek and use drugs with impaired control over substance use despite negative consequences (Prud’homme et al., 2015). The endocannabinoid system has been found to influence the acquisition and maintenance of drug-seeking behaviors, possibly through its role in reward and brain plasticity (Gardner, 2005; Heifets and Castillo, 2009). Both systematic reviews examined only randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Whiting et al. excluded from their primary analysis trials that did not use a parallel group design (i.e., they excluded crossover trials) and performed a quantitative pooling of results. In contrast, Koppel et al. included crossover trials but did not perform a quantitative pooling of results. Recent systematic reviews were unable to identify any randomized controlled trials evaluating the efficacy of cannabinoids for the treatment of epilepsy.